The Homeless and Elderly Population free essay sample

Garbage Pollution

Trash Pollution Presentation Human exercises are to a great extent credited to the loss of the planet’s biodiversity. The effect of man on the earth is so gigantic since he has encouraged the pace of species eradication a thousand to ten thousand times the ordinary rate (Derraik, 2002). The termination of marine life for example, has been quickened by squander trash and the worldwide climatic variations.Advertising We will compose a custom research paper test on Garbage Pollution explicitly for you for just $16.05 $11/page Learn More The twenty first century has been set apart by an emotional mechanical progression that has elevated the way of life. In any case, this has additionally accompanied an incredible expense since the materials created are hard to arrange without influencing nature. Plastic sacks, family unit trash and electronic waste are such items, which have represented an incredible hazard to the earth since the methods for arranging them is troublesome (Derraik, 2002). Postulat ion: Garbage remains are a consuming issue that we need to confront today. It is near each and every individual who lives on the planet since we item rubbish each day. In a large portion of the world, we do one of two things with our standard trash: consume it or cover it. Neither one of the ones is beneficial for us or for nature. Consuming trash in incinerators discharges perilous gases and residue which add to a worldwide temperature alteration and contaminate lakes, woodlands. Step by step instructions to decrease the trash remains become a major issue for everybody. Land Pollution Typical house hold squander contains papers, cardboards, chlorine-faded plastics, foils, food scraps and batteries (EPA, 2011). Averagely, in the U.S, a solitary individual can create 3.72 pounds trash day by day, where 40% of 50 million individuals living in the non-metropolitan district of the country are evaluated to consume their waste (lawn consuming), while 63% of the all out day by day trash is burned in consume barrels. Accordingly, more than 1.8 billion pounds of trash from family unit is burned in consume barrels yearly (MDEQ, 2005). As indicated by Hill (2010 p.345), more than ‘500 billion one-time-utilize plastic bags’ are utilized yearly on the planet and wind up being littered pervasively to involve squander/abuse. Simultaneously, plastics are non-biodegradable and covering them just wrecks the environment, representing a risk to marine biological systems. Plastics are polymeric, profoundly non-biodegradable and endure for quite a while in the common habitats (Hill, 2010). Electronic squanders/e-squander contains disposed of electronic apparatuses, for example, PCs, telephones, TV, and edges. These are dangerous when inappropriately arranged in landfills or when burned. For example, the Cathode Ray Tubes (CRT) present in TVs contains phosphors and lead that debases the land and water if inappropriately arranged, or when there is move of the debris from the incinerators. Such landfills pollute the encompassing soil which thusly taints the underground water (MDEQ, 2005). Air Pollution Plastics are subsidiaries of fossils energizes with differed concoction properties consequently, entangling the reusing procedure. In this way, consuming trash especially the ones containing plastics, contaminate the climate through discharge of poisonous gases. Many have unpredictable Organic Compounds (VOC, for example, chlorine/bromine that are discharged on copying and decimate the ozone layer.Advertising Looking for investigate paper on natural examinations? How about we check whether we can support you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Carbon dioxide and monoxide discharged from copying natural issue additionally aggregates in the air. At last, they drain the ozone layer coming about to a worldwide temperature alteration, which is the main facilitator of environmental change (MDEQ, 2005). PVC specifically, discharges dioxin after cop ying. Dioxin is a natural compound, which has impeding wellbeing impacts when breathed in since they are cancer-causing and bio-collective. Burning produces pipe gas that contains risky air poisons (HAPs, for example, carbon monoxide and dioxide, nitrogen oxides, benzene, styrene, dioxins, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), furans just as substantial metals like lead, arsenic and mercury, which fundamentally dirty nature (MDEQ, 2005). Consume barrels discharge smoke containing hydrochloric corrosive and formaldehyde, which bothers the respiratory framework and eyes. Formaldehyde is available in squeezed wood and paints. Then again, blanched papers and plastics contain chlorine, which discharges dioxins when combusted with other trash at insignificant temperatures. Dioxins cause malignant growth, resistant framework brokenness and birth surrenders (EPA, 2011). On a similar note, measurements from 2002 to 2004 demonstrates that patio and barrel consuming involved 57% of the wellspring of furans and dioxins (U.S. Division of Health, 2011; EPA, 2011). All the more in this way, combusting trash with engineered materials produces substantial metals that are cancer-causing and embroiled with some birth abandons. Combusting polystyrene polymers present in froth cups and plastic bundling produce styrene gas that can go through skin just as lungs and mucous layers to make harm the focal sensory system (U.S. Division of Health, 2011). Water Pollution Some plastics and electronic squanders proceed to breakdown into less complex poisonous items that contaminate the underground just as the running water when covered or left to litter in dumpsites. After burning of electronic squanders and plastics, the remains at long last discover their way in streams and lakes along these lines representing a risk to marine life. Mercury, dioxins, Furans and PCBs bioaccumulate in the environment and along these lines, they are moved through the evolved way of life. At the point when plasti cs heap together because of poor removal, they stop up seepages and sewers prompting floods, where mosquitoes and different pathogens breed causing poor sanitation with genuine wellbeing suggestions (Derraik, 2002).Advertising We will compose a custom research paper test on Garbage Pollution explicitly for you for just $16.05 $11/page Learn More The debris from incinerators may contain unsafe items, which when covered or set in the landfills, debase the dirt. For the most part, they contain overwhelming metals the greater part of which are cancer-causing for example cadmium, lead mercury from batteries just as chromium and arsenic from rewarded wood. These aggregate in plants or debase ground and running water. Trash garbage moves to the seas, executing the marine life, for example, zooplankton and marine turtles. Trash disposed of in sea shores and from ships into the conduits or through angling nets could eventually be eaten by marine life, clouding their stomach related framework s. Some are choked, entrapped or caught by the flotsam and jetsam making the life forms suffocate/starve, become presented to predators or incapable to chase their prey. These are some of pernicious effects of marine trash encouraged by trash littering, which risk the presence of these creatures (Derraik, 2002). The ingested plastics likewise contain polychlorinated biphenyls that are perilous to intruder species. Besides, the marine biological systems additionally face the peril of hypoxia/anoxia, because of trash flotsam and jetsam that unevenness its typical working (Derraik, 2002). Arrangements and Recommendations The financial ramifications of trash can't be overlooked since tremendous measure of cash is spent in clearing and rewarding the litter, tending to general wellbeing concerns and reusing. Worldwide enactments and participation ought to be arranged towards moderating the earth through appropriate removal of trash, reusing of plastic and utilization of elective bundling that are biodegradable or dependable packs that can be reused severally. Also, open mindfulness ought to be upgraded through instruction of the more extensive network through the school educational plan. Universal relations encouraged by the idea of ‘Thinking comprehensively and acting locally’ essentially address the natural danger presented by waste disposal (Derraik, 2002). Trash contamination can be overseen through reusing measures or prohibiting of plastic sacks utilized in bundling. Elective ecofriendly methods for bundling ought to be drafted while high charges ought to be forced on the producer and purchasers of these plastics. Electronic waste can likewise be reused and revamped. ‘Reduce’, ‘Reuse’ and ‘Recycle’ are the 3Rs that go far in dealing with the issue of trash. Pre-cycle involves choosing things that are less bundled or those that can be reused. Reuse of old papers, plastic packs and jars, offering old garments f or a noble cause just as utilizing an espresso cup as opposed to dispensable cups is essential. Diminish, alludes to limiting the family unit trash through buying economy packs and keeping away from wastage of papers. Reusing of plastics and papers, cardboards and even e-waste ought to be maintained (U. S. Division of Health, 2011).Advertising Searching for inquire about paper on natural investigations? We should check whether we can support you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Find out More Biodegradable trash ought to be left to decay in a composite pit while the rest ought to be put in authorized landfills. To entirety it all, lawn consuming ought to be directed in all nations especially in the country locales since it doesn't just dirty the air yet in addition involves a critical outflow of harmful buildup that represents a high hazard to the general wellbeing and all the more in this way, decline the personal satisfaction. Consume barrels that encourage deficient burning to produce extremely poisonous mixes ought to be directed. In this way, authorized incinerators with channels and temperatures surpassing 1,800 degrees Fahrenheit to encourage total burning, ought to be grasped to limit dangerous discharges. References Derraik, J. G. (2002). The contamination of the marine condition by plastic flotsam and jetsam: a survey. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 44(9), 842-852. Slope, M. K. (201

Everyone Is Entitled To Their Own Opinion

Everybody Is Entitled To Their Own Opinion On December 10, 1948 the General Assembly of the United Nations broadcasted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights Following this huge demonstration the Assembly called upon all Member nations to report the content of the Declaration, read and clarified essentially in schools and other instructive organizations, without distinction dependent on the political status of nations or regions. So the inquiry, if everybody is qualified for their own conclusion could discover ease answer in the article 19, in which is expressed that Everyone has the option to opportunity of feeling and articulation; this privilege incorporates opportunity to hold suppositions without obstruction and to look for, get and confer data and thoughts through any media and paying little heed to frontiers.(David Weissbrodt and Connie de la Vega , p102) This widespread affirmation of human right set an overall standard of accomplishment for all individuals and all countries, to the end that each person and each organ of society, remembering this Declaration continually, and bend over backward by educating and energize regard for these rights and opportunities , broadly and globally, to make sure about their all inclusive and powerful acknowledgment and recognition, both among the individuals of Member States themselves and among the individuals of domain under their impact. Unquestionably the acknowledgment of equivalent and unavoidable privileges of all individuals from the human family is the supporting of opportunity, harmony and equity on the planet. We can affirm that any place, either before or in right now or future there is the nonappearance of such status we will consistently encounter consequence of primitive acts. Obviously Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan revelation Every man has an option to his own sentiment, yet no man has a privilege to not be right in his realities., will change the conclusion about assessments .So feelings can hold contradicting sees, yet those suppositions must be founded on genuine certainties, and hold explicit attributes, for example, forestall mischief to other people, keep away from wellspring of offense or be hostile and obviously staying away from moral offenses. (Tom Gorman, 2007 p.100-102) We can say that, hazardous sentiments lead to perilous activities or reality. What's more, when they do, we have to stand up and unequivocally censure those perilous activities and be incredulous of the convictions which lead to those activities. Presently once more, we are not looking at banning those hazardous suppositions and convictions, yet we are looking at being incredulous of those assessments and convictions. We could be steady to the ACLU (American Civil Liberty Union) when they secured the KKK (Ku Klux Klan) for their entitlement to walk demo calmly. Be that as it may, in the event that they needed to walk calmly in our urban areas, perhaps we would be uninvolved being disparaging of their convictions and against those perspectives. In our examination in any case, no conclusions ought to be above analysis. We trust in the commercial center of thoughts and in that bazaar all feelings and convictions are welcome and ought to be also open to analysis. We as a whole, scrutinize different people groups feelings consistently, yet nobody would contend that it was corrupt to communicate supposition or to condemn them. Nobody has a trouble censuring what Hitler did to the Jews. Nor do individuals have worry in reprimanding the KKK for their perspectives, or that Tom Cruise is continually condemned for his strict perspective thus for most of Christians, Jews and Muslims that generally are underlined with analysis for their sentiment .obviously the second anybody censures conclusion and convictions, we will have endeavor to over perform the analysis with cases of narrow mindedness as well as despise. Hints are made that their free discourse is being removed; making an unfortunate mix-up of what truly is opportunity of supposition. At that point to maintain a strategic distance from such misconstruing we ought to investigate the implication of the diverse part of supposition, to completely value the significance of a word and information and how we could make the best use out of it. We could begin doing as such by utilizing a philosophical methodology. Presently in the event that we believe that Philosophy is the quest for knowledge, we realize that sentiment and speculation are conflicting with rationale. There is no wavering in speculation, that way of thinking gives the act of logical thinking, thus the information on things and their causes, through explanation and discourse. It is a method of grasping what is truthful and what is right by concentrating on reasonable comprehension and investigation, or essentially what bodes well. So once we build up this idea we can proceed onward to the subsequent methodology, wherein , standards venture to every part of the contrary method of the primary methodology ,yet qualified to be mulled over .So we will take a gander at the outflow of feeling under scholarly perspective and, on the off chance that it ought to be voiced unreservedly by any individual . We can say that an Intelligent individual whether his assessment depends on reality or not, will have the effect. As of now, for somebody to have his supposition has the greatest effect. An informed individual has a sentiment on any issue; .and can offer a conceivable response on any inquiry. The answer doesn't need to be careful, or even exact, yet an individual must have some assessment to talk about regarding the matter. Along these lines, it isn't basic to realize the realities so as to communicate a feeling; a conclusion may even be altogether unsupported in a contention. So additionally looking at the statement of conclusion under scholarly view, we can affirm that any one is qualified for their own assessment, particularly those people with a specific social planning, since, we realize that if a supposition isn't established on exhibited and substantial data, it is unessential. Obviously we can contend that, on a certain expand, in such a case that we do think about the assessment of relativity of the feeling, we would locate an alternate imminent. In the language of relativity, everybody is exact. Potentially from their specific perspective, everybody is in the circumstance of accepting that they have precisely decided the request for occasions. In any case, we realize that it isn't feasible for everybody to be correct. For instance If everybody has an assorted feeling about which is the best old style painter ever on the planet it may not be conceivable to decide at last who is right, thus we might be enticed to state that they are both qualified for their conclusion or perspective. So entitled or not, the best painter is by assignment only one , and the assessments of everything except one admirer aren't right, despite the fact that its unrealistic to state whose sentiment is right .At this point it will be essential to look at the comprehension of valid in accepting the feeling. Everybody ought to have the autonomy to hold onto their own convictions and the opportunity to endeavor persuading others regarding reality of those convictions and conclusions. Be that as it may, as we probably am aware, not all convictions can in reality be similarly obvious. On the off chance that you accept that an artwork finished by Mr Jones is predominant than the one done by Michelangelo, or that somebody says that the late spring in Egypt is hotter than the one in Italy and we trust it is wrongly the route around , we could both not be right , however we can not both be correct. On the off chance that we accept the Mount Etna is an Active fountain of liquid magma, and you accept that it isn't, we can not both be correct. With regards to the distinction between a functioning well of lava or not, we can not say everybody is qualified for their own feeling. Tolerably, we take a gander at the evidences and realities, and attempt to diagram whose assessment is truly right. Unmistakably before communicating feeling we should analyze the conceivable proof, and not excuse the situation without taking a gander at it. So it is significant before having confidence specifically supposition the assessment of proof. Thus, attempting to see, how we could get unique in relation to the sort of individual who might overlook the proof , and still trust as he would see it. What's more, in doing so we may experience the assessment of the plausible sentiment, thoughtfully all around outlined by Bertrand Russell: What we firmly accept, in the event that it is valid, is called information, if it is either natural or backhanded (consistently or mentally) an instinctive information from which it follows intelligently. What we solidly accept, on the off chance that it isn't accurate, is called mistake. What we immovably accept, on the off chance that it is neither information nor blunder, and furthermore what we accept unsure, on the grounds that it is, or is gotten from, something which has not simply the primary degree proof, might be called likely assessment. In this way the bigger piece of what might routinely go as information is pretty much plausible supposition. A collection of independently likely assessments, on the off chance that they are commonly normal, become more plausible than any of them would be exclusi vely. It is along these lines that numerous logical speculations get their likelihood. They fit into a reasonable arrangement of likely suppositions, and in this manner become more plausible than they would be in seclusion. Something very similar applies to general philosophical speculations. Frequently in a solitary case such speculations may show up very suspicious, while yet, when we consider the request and rationality which they bring into a mass of plausible conclusion, they transform into practically certain. (Bertrand Russell, 2001 p.138-139-Probable Opinion By Bertrand Russell, Copyright 2001 (pg.138-139) Finishing up we can say that conclusions are not the issue , issues happen when individuals start utilizing sentiment to isolate and affront .Is verifiably obvious that everyone is qualified for their own feeling .It is a procedure that can nor be halted nor monitored .So the last inquiry is, Should each one be permitted to their own supposition ? The appropriate response is that it is dependent upon every person to pick in the case of voicing their supposition on a subject, is important or not. We realize that voicing conclusion in specific conditions may prompt terrifying results and on the off chance that we would do as such, we ought to be set up to manage those outcomes.

Introduction to China Free Essays

Prologue to China Topic: Experience (Likes and aversions) in China 2011/2012 Introduction I have been in China for over two years. Early encounters in China and current encounters have a great deal of contrasts. Early days I had such a large number of interesting encounters. We will compose a custom article test on Prologue to China or on the other hand any comparative theme just for you Request Now I am going to begin my paper with the most amusing encounters. Here it is. At the point when I was coming to China my companions revealed to me that when you meet Chinese individuals they will say You should answer the equivalent. At that point they will ask You should answer One day I met a Chinese person. He let me know . I answered the equivalent. At that point he asked me I answered And the person gazed at me abnormally. Around then I didn't have the foggiest idea why, however now I know. One more day I went to an eatery to have my lunch. At the point when I was returning I met somebody and he likewise welcomed me . I answered so. At that point he asked me I thought he was asking me whether I have taken my feast or not. In this way, as common I said Then he thought for some time and said â€Å"yes, yes I know where the Chifanle nation is. It is in Africa, isn’t it? † I said â€Å"No, it was in restaurant† in light of the fact that I thought he asked me where I had my lunch. It was absolutely a wreck. Still now when I recall this I burst out chuckling. My preferences about China: People in a similar circumstance can portray an item emphatically or contrarily because of contrast in recognition. In this way, what can be preferred by one might be not by another. Be that as it may, as I am solicited to give some from my preferences in china, I am giving it from my recognition. My goal is neither to hurt nor to satisfy anybody. In the event that somebody is happy to hear my preferences it is my pleasure and on the off chance that somebody is harmed I am very grieved. My preferences * I like the helping inclination of Chinese individuals. At the point when I came to china I was in a difficult situation to start with. I didn't discover anyone with whom I can talk in English and be comprehended. Be that as it may, I was truly flabbergasted that they were attempting to discover some approach to support me. I was extremely glad to see the helping inclination. * I like that China has effectively changed over its enormous populace into labor. From a monetary perspective, this is one of the significant reasons the nation have the quickest developing economy on the planet. Work here not at all like in the western world is modest combined with the accessibility of innovation. Chinese individuals are persevering in contrast with individuals in different nations. As I accept that industry is the way to progress, so I appreciate them. * I like Chinese food however the vast majority of my cohorts grumble that Chinese food is hot. Very my nation we likewise eat hot food. In this way, I have no issue with fiery food. * China’ s characteristic landscape is interesting and well known as one of the most excellent on the earth. I like the regular view of china particularly the slopes and heaps of china. I additionally visited a few places in china. It’s extremely brilliant. My Dislikes * I have not yet gotten completely used to the climate of Wuhan. Subsequent to coming here I encountered excessively hot and excessively cold however it is hard to endure. * I don't care for the manner in which Chinese young men and young ladies begin to look all starry eyed at and their incessant difference in adoration. Beginning to look all starry eyed at is divine and keeping up it is additionally same, yet many are not worried about keeping up. * Finally I don't care for the manner in which the drivers drive vehicles in China. Most drivers are foolish and won’t give people on foot opportunity to cross. I see drivers disrupting the traffic norms. Finishing up thought China has progressively ethnic gatherings and populace and has a since quite a while ago advanced history of human progress. In the event that we watch the way of life of china and that of my nation we see numerous similitudes, and numerous dissimilarities are found also. I regard all the social exercises of my nation just as China. Before coming to China I didn't know about huge numbers of the things that I referenced in my preferences about China and its way of life. As the time is passing I am assembling increasingly more experience about China and its Culture. Presently, I like China to an ever increasing extent. Instructions to refer to Introduction to China, Papers

Social Analysis. Ass 2 Example

Social Analysis. Ass 2 Example Social Analysis. Ass 2 â€" Case Study Example > OutlineIntroductionOverview of Binge drinking among the adolescenceBinge drinking in light of post-modernity theory and post-colonial theoryHow Binge drinking is represented in the media (using post-modernity and post-colonial theories)ConclusionReferencesIntroductionThere has been an increase in alcohol consumption among the youth in the recent past. The consequences of over-indulgence in alcohol especially at a young age usually results in tainted future expectations. Binge drinking at a younger age is a risky behaviour since it escalates as an individual grows to adulthood, the addiction created at a younger age manifests in the adulthood life. Some of the consequences of binge drinking includes; increased immorality, careless driving, poor memory and physical injuries among other negative consequences. The media has highlighted this concern over the last period because of the sensitivity of the issue and the need to reduce the vice in order to avoid its future consequences in the country. The media in Australia has increased its attention especially towards binge drinking in the country. This is so because of the increasing consequences of the act to the overall national development. It is therefore imperative for all stakeholders to get involved in the process of curbing binge drinking among adolescence in order to reduce its future consequences in the country. There are two social perspectives that play a pivotal role in defining the genesis of binge drinking in Australia; these social factors are post-modernity and post-colonial theories. Post modernity will try to link theories that emerge after modernization, this actually means that to some extent there has been a social departure from the effects of modernity and the way in which people operated as a result of modernization. With respect to post-colonial perspective, this theory tries to explain both social and cultural link between the society and its colonial masters. In essence, this explains the current culture of the society with respect to some aspect of its colonial master and how the society’s social and cultural orientation has been influenced. Overview of Binge drinking among the adolescenceThe media has highlighted binge drinking among the youth because of the statistical analysis that reveals that 86 per cent of students in Australia have indulged in binge drinking at an early age of 14, this figure rises to about 96 per cent as the age progresses to 17 (Jones et al. , 2009). There are Australian guidelines that provide the limits of alcohol consumption but unfortunately 22 per cent of adolescence aged 14 exceeds the limit provided by the guideline. This percentage develops and exceeds this level as the age progresses to 17; in essence the percentage doubles to 44 per cent as the age progresses. According to Bonomo et al. , (2004) adolescents are usually introduced to drinking by their parents at their homes. Most weekly drinkers at adolescence attribute th eir source of alcohol drinking to their parents. The parent’s attitudes and their modelling of alcohol consumption is usually the genesis of increased adolescents drinking in Australia. The post-colonial theory and post modernity theory also explains the reasons of increased binge drinking among the youth in light of the content being disseminated by the media.

Does Virtue Ethics Offer a Convincing Account of what it is to be Right - Free Essay Example

This essay shall discuss whether or not virtue ethics offers a convincing account of what it is to be morally right. It shall focus on Hursthouses version of virtue ethics, which shall be outlined first, and the positives of this argument: that it allows for different actions in different situations, and does not justify mass atrocities as a result. Four criticisms shall then be put against virtue ethics: that it is not action guiding; it does not explain cultural difference; it offers no guidance for virtue conflict; and that it relies on either a circularity or, at best, the argument being superfluous. With only one of these criticisms being answerable, it shall then be ultimately concluded that virtue ethics does not offer a convincing account of what it is to be right. Hursthouses argument of virtue ethics is an updated version of Aristotles original work. She claims that an action is right iff it is what a virtuous agent would characteristically do in the circumstances (Hursthouse, 1996: 646). Virtue ethics, then, makes an essential reference to the virtuous person, which Hursthouse claims is a person who acts virtuously à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ one who has and exercises the virtues (Hursthouse, 1996: 647). It is a trivial truth that a virtuous person does what is right, according to all moral theories. However, virtue ethics differs from other arguments in that it claims that an action is right in virtue of it being what the virtuous person would do. The concept of what is a virtue, then, must be established. In this, Hursthouse makes her claim to Aristotle, arguing that a virtue is a character trait a human being needs for eudaimonia, to flourish or live well (Hursthouse, 1996: 647). This links to Aristotles work The Nicomachean Ethics, in which he claims eudaimonia is living a flourishing, happy life, which he views as the ultimate end and goal of a persons life (Aristotle, 340bc). A virtue is any trait which will make an addition to this flourishing life, arguably termed the positive traits, such as kindness or charity. Here, virtue ethics demonstrates a shift from the deontic concepts of deontology and consequentialism; not claiming that an action ought or ought not to be done. Instead, there is a justification of actions in terms of areteic concepts; claiming that an action is kind or callous, for example. It can now be summarised what makes an action right according to virtue ethics. An action will be right iff it is what a virtuous agent would characteristically do in the circumstances. The virtuous agent would characteristically do the action i n the circumstances iff the trait which leads to the action is a virtue. Finally, the trait which leads to the action will be a virtue iff it would increase the eudaimonia of the agent. There are positive things to be said of Hursthouses argument for virtue ethics. Firstly, by stating an action is right iff it is what a virtuous agent would characteristically do in the circumstances, there is an allowance for variation in action dependent on the situation, which is more in line with our pragmatic moral practice. This escapes the rigidity and often counter-intuitive rules of deontology. Secondly, whilst it allows for variation in moral practice, it doesnt allow for the atrocities which consequentialism justifies as a consequence of its situational variation. This is because virtue ethics argument depends on what the virtuous person would do and, arguably, it would be said that the virtuous agent would not act in the way consequentialism argues for, by allowing mass murder or tortu re under certain extreme circumstances, for example. However, there are decisive criticisms against virtue ethics. The first criticism is that it does little to tell us exactly how to act; it is not action guiding. Virtue ethics states that we should act as the virtuous person would. This gives no other instruction than act virtuously, which perhaps can be further developed into act kindly or do not act callously. However, there is no further instruction than this, and nothing to say whether an action will be kind or just; a person is left to rely on their pre-understanding and belief. Hursthouses response to this criticism seems to be that this is all the instruction that we need. She argues: We can now see that [virtue ethics] comes up with a large number [of rules] à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ each virtue generate[s] a prescription à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" act honestly, charitably, justly. (Hursthouse, 1996: 648). When acting, we need only ask ourselves is this act just? or is this act kind?, and the response to the question, being either yes or no, will dictate whether or not an act should be done or not. This response to the objection does little to answer the original concern, and leads to the second criticism. Hursthouse claims that in order to determine whether an act is just, or kind, or deceitful, a person should seek out those who they consider to be their moral and virtuous superior, and ask their advice (Hursthouse, 1996: 647-648). Not only does this rely on a preconception in measurement of virtue (in that we must have an understanding of what is just in order that we may decide which acquaintance is most just), it does little to recognise what is a second criticism for virtue ethics: the variation in morality between cultures. There is a variation in virtues for different cultures in three senses. Firstly, cultures may vary on which virtue is to take precedence in cases of virtue conflict (though this is a separate criticism in itself). In the se cond sense, cultures vary in their conception of whether a trait is, indeed, a virtue. Thirdly, cultures vary on what they believe the action would be which the virtue leads to. MacIntyre writes: They [various thinkers and cultures] offer us different and incompatible lists of the virtues; they give a different rank order of importance to different virtues; and they have different and incompatible theories of the virtues. (MacIntyre, 2007: 181). He gives the example of Homer, who claimed that physical strength was a virtue. This, MacIntyre claims, would never be accepted as a virtue in modern society and, consequently, the difference in Homers idea of a virtue or an excellence is vastly different to that of ours (MacIntyre, 1981: 27). Though this demonstrates that one trait may be accepted as a virtue by one culture and not by another, it is also highlights the third sense of cultural difference: that different cultures can accept the same trait as a virtue, but what constitut es an act being virtuous may be varied. For example, all societies believe justice to be a virtue, yet one might consider capital punishment to be just and therefore virtuous, whilst the other may hold capital punishment to be unjust and therefore not virtuous. To the defence of virtue ethics, Hursthouse claims that the problem is one which is equally shared by deontology, arguing: Each theory has to stick out its neck and say, in some cases this person/these people/other cultures are in error, and find some grounds for saying this. (Hursthouse, 1991: 229) Yet this causes concern for virtue theory. Hursthouse is here claiming that some cultures are wrong in believing that certain traits truly lead to an increase in eudaimonia, and are therefore wrong about them being virtues. This presents a circularity in reasoning for virtue ethics. Before the circularity criticism is discussed, a defence can be made of one aspect of conflict: when two virtues are in conflict, not acro ss cultures, but with one another in a situation. The third criticism is that situations are easily imagined in which two virtues can be in conflict in this manner. For instance, a police officer may apprehend a robber. On hearing the robbers story, it turns out that he stole food in order to provide for his starving children. The police officer must then decide whether to act on the virtue of justice, and arrest the robber who, despite the circumstances, has committed a crime, or to act on the virtue of sympathy and charity, and allow the robber to take the food and feed the starving children. Hursthouse claims that in such cases, virtue ethics has nothing helpful to say (Hursthouse, 1991: 229). However, a response can be contested. The degree of conflict can be very broad, dependent on the circumstances. In some situations, the correct answer is obvious; in the above case, it would be hard to justify not allowing a man a stolen loaf of bread to feed his starving children. In ot her situations, the degree of conflict can be much narrower, making the decision much more difficult. In keeping with the argument of virtue ethics, the correct decision is going to be the one which adds to eudaimonia. If both traits will lead to an increase in eudaimonia, the correct choice will be the one which adds most to eudaimonia. As the difference in the amount of increase narrows, the choice becomes harder, but the moral recompense in choosing wrongly will be less. Ultimately, if both virtues will increase eudaimonia equally, then they are equally the correct choice. However, the most decisive criticism is that the argument which virtue ethics puts forward for what is morally right rests on a circularity. This is brought forward when it was demonstrated that virtue ethics necessitates the existence of some other criterion being the case in order that it can be said some cultures are right and others wrong in their approach to the implementation of virtues and what it is that they hold to be a virtue. If virtue ethics is to explain why some cultures are wrong in their implementation of the virtues, then their argument must work as follows: a culture is wrong because what they are advocating as right would not be done by the virtuous person. It would not be done by the virtuous person because the trait which leads to the action is not a virtue. The trait which leads to the action is not a virtue because it would not add to the persons eudaimonia. The reason, then, that a culture is wrong, is because they are mistaken in assuming that the trait which would lead to the action is a virtue, because it will not add to the persons eudaimonia. It must therefore be considered what it takes for a trait to lead to an increase in eudaimonia. To this end, it must be claimed that a trait can only add to eudaimonia, and therefore be a virtue, because of something about the trait: if it is morally right. Herein is the circularity. Virtue ethics states that an action is right iff it is what the virtuous person would characteristically do in the situation. However, it has already been shown that there must be something about a trait which is morally right in order that it can add to eudaimonia and therefore be a virtue, so that the virtuous person may act on it. To avoid the circularity, for a trait to be morally right, there must be a criterion of rightness other than it is what the virtuous person would characteristically do in the situation. If such a criterion exists, virtue ethics argument becomes superfluous to explain what is right. In conclusion, the argument for virtue ethics account of what it is for an action to be right has been set forward. Firstly, the positives to this argument were shown: that it avoids the rigidity of deontology and the atrocities of consequentialism. It was then criticised with four arguments: it is not action guiding; the difference in cultures morality; concerns when two or more virtues come into co nflict; and the necessity for another criterion of rightness which, if accepted, renders virtue ethics unnecessary or, if rejected, leads to a circularity in virtue ethics. Therefore, it is concluded that virtue ethics does not offer a convincing account of what it is for an action to be right. Reference List Aristotle. (340bc). The Nichomachean Ethics. Translated by Ross, D. Edited by Brown, L. (2009). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Hursthouse, R. (1991). Virtue Theory and Abortion. In Philosophy and Public Affairs. Vol. 20, No. 3, pp. 223-246. Hursthouse, R. (1996). Normative Virtue Ethics. In Ethical Theory: An Anthology. Edited by Shafer-Landau, R. (2013). Chichester: John Wiley Sons, pp. 645-652. MacIntyre, A. (1981). The Nature of the Virtues. In The Hastings Centre Report. Vol. 11, No. 2, pp. 27-34. MacIntyre, A. (2007). After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory. 3rd edition. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press.

Elements of Religion and Alternative paths Free Essay Example, 1000 words

Now, it may be quite suitable to turn to the analysis of the â€Å"new religion†. The one that will be analyzed is called Wicca and Druidism. Speaking of the elements that can be identified in it, one should point out the rituals. Indeed, when it comes to understanding these spiritual systems, one can not overestimate the significance of rituals (Sabrina, 2001, 96). For example, Wiccan rituals involve feasting which engaged people in a large number of activities through which the religion knowledge is passed. As one can clearly see, the notion of community is also extremely important for Wicca and Druidism (Drew, 2003, 230). Just like any other religious system it may experience some opposition for the public; so, the gatherings of the adepts primarily serve to reinforce the position of it in the social environment. For example, if one would like to gain a true experience of Wicca, one would have to visit the above mentioned feasts since this would be the only way to see the religious belief in question being practiced so explicitly. Finally, the material expression of religion is also quite important, especially when it comes to practicing one that has been a subject of criticism from the point of view of the religion that is dominant in the social environment. We will write a custom essay sample on Elements of Religion and Alternative paths or any topic specifically for you Only $17.96 $11.86/page Nevertheless, one should also point out that some of the elements that are characteristic to religions are not fully present. It is obvious that one can not say that they are totally absent; however, the approach towards them is different if compared to the traditional religions. For example, in Wicca and Druidism, the idea of sacred has been re-evaluated.